A great synthesis of Indian History using Archaeology, Vedic Philology and Linguistics. This work is a summary of 50+ years of the wide-ranging research that Prof. Asko Parpola has done and published in specialized articles and brings up to date his 1994 book. For unraveling of the ancient history of India, three significant discoveries are brought together: (1) Discovery of Indo-European languages and Sanskrit's place in it (2) Dravidian language family and its oldest texts, called Sangam literature of Tamil (3) Discovery of Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) in the 1920s. This book shows an earlier form of Dravidian language was spoken by the authors and elites of IVC, even though like modern India, IVC was multi-lingual. This important book is an important contribution on par with Robert Caldwell's book on Dravidian language family (1856 CE) in demonstrating Tamil and other Dravidian languages' role in the formation of "Village Hinduism". A major factor in Indian society is Caste and the system which shows the formation is in Sangam texts [a]. The intertwining nature of the two classical languages of India - Tamil and Sanskrit - in the fundamental elements of ancient Indian society and religion is brought out beautifully. For example, Dravidian "niira" (water) becomes "niila" to denote blue/black color. Similarly, Parpola suggests Meru, the cosmic mountain's name is from Dravidian "Melu-" ('upper, top, peak"). Also, Vaac, cognate with Latin "vox", is Sanskrit. In Hinduism's concept, Vaac is a loan translation of Dravidian viL/veL, connected with vEL, a name of god Murukan, chieftains and land lords in Tamil. Genetics also proves the language shift in North India around 3000 years ago with small number of Indo-European speakers ingressing, just as it happened 400 years ago in Central and South Americas.
Parpola's work discusses two major waves of Aryan language speakers entering via the Northwest of India from Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC). This happened around 1800 BCE ("Atharvavedic") and then ~1400 BCE ("Rgvedic"). The first wave of "Atharvavedic" folks connected with VaruNa worship merged with the earlier Harappan crocodile god [b & c]. In the Post-Harappan phase, when BMAC folks moved in and the language shift in North India was going on, the continuity of Harappan religion can be shown using the bronze Anthropomorphic Axe sculptures found from Haryana to Uttar Pradesh. Yamuna and Ganga doab valley with Yamuna river name connected with Yaamai 'turtle' in ancient Dravidian and IVC's gharial god is the symbol of the Ganga river. Post-Harappan "Anthropomorphic Axe" sculptures are made as huge monolithic sculptures in south India during the Early Iron Age "megalithic" period. This continuity of crocodile worship from Indus civilization to Iron Age Tamil country shown from archaeology and Sangam era coins gives clinching evidence that the IVC authors were Dravidian language speakers.
[a] Early Evidence of Caste from Sangam literature,
http://www.tamilnation.co/caste/hart.pdf
[b] Gharial god and Tiger goddess in the Indus valley, Some aspects of Bronze Age Indian Religion, 2007
https://archive.org/stream/IVCReligionByNagaGanesan2007/IVC_religion_by_Naga_Ganesan_2007#page/n0/mode/2up
[c] A Dravidian Etymology for Makara - Crocodile, 2011
https://archive.org/stream/MakaraADravidianEtymology2011/Makara_a_Dravidian_etymology_2011#page/n0/mode/2up
In March 2016, Proceedings of 16th World Sanskrit Conference will be published in Bangkok, Thailand. In it, the following paper of mine discusses the Tamil country's early religion derived from IVC crocodile deity.
Indus Crocodile Religion as seen in the Iron Age Tamil Nadu
Abstract: This article is about some aspects of Indian religion in the Post-Harappan period providing a link to the Indus Valley Civilization seen in its Bronze Age seals. The meaning of the anthropomorphic axes found in the Indo-Gangetic doab plains of the Second Millennium BC as a ritual symbol of a Makara (crocodile) god will be presented. The characteristic fish sign pointing to the Dravidian language spoken by the elite Harappans has long been explored from the days of Fr. H. Heras, SJ. However, the importance of crocodiles in IVC culture is recently coming to light (A. Parpola, 2011). When this Crocodile cult disappears and gets forgotten in North India, it appears as large monolithic sculptures in the megalithic South. An interpretation of the Tamil Brahmi inscription at Tirupparankunram, near the ancient Pandyan capital Madurai, discovered by History department, Pondicherry University will be offered as mentioning the crocodile god and his spouse. The Asvamedha sacrifice on the banks of a Water Tank was performed for a crocodile as evidenced in Pandyan Peruvaluti and Chera coins. Graffiti symbols from Sanur and Sulur as linguistic sign for the crocodile deity, and the crocodile couple in Adichanallur burial urn (500 BCE) along with the battle-axe bearing great god in Sangam poetry will be used to illustrate the prevalence of the crocodile based religion until the Early Sangam period. The first stone sculpture made in south India at such places as Mottur, Udaiyarnatham, - monumental in size, over ten feet tall -, in the Iron Age will be linked to the earlier metallic Anthropomorphic Axes in the Yamuna-Gangetic doab, found in many Post-Harappan Ochre Colored Pottery sites of North India. The lecture will include etymology of Dravidian names such as ViTankar, Nakar, Ghaṛiaal, Makara, Karaa for the three species of Indian crocodiles. Finally, an interpretation of Gudimallam ViTankar (Lingam) as Varuna, rather than as Siva assumed by earlier scholars like A. K. Coomaraswamy, is offered. In the subsequent Pallava period, development of Tantric Saivism includes the tantric term ViTankar applied more broadly for the forms of Siva like naked Bhiksaaṭana and Somaskanda.
N. Ganesan, PhD
Houston, Texas, USA
The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization
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Top reviews from other countries
Prasanth PN
Well written. The research and the effort shows.
Reviewed in India on July 7, 2020Mohan Nair
Good book, great new theories, but sometimes stretches things a bit too far. Would recommend.
Reviewed in Canada on April 18, 2018Vanavaramban
An important contribution to Indology
Reviewed in Germany on November 28, 2018Charlotte Granier
Livre d'un grand indologue et sindhologue
Reviewed in France on August 25, 2017Jay383
I have no doubt that this is the best book which could have served my needs
Reviewed in the United Kingdom on July 15, 2016